Lead & Crime

A paper I wrote for my MSW program in 2016 -

In the heart of Andalucia, Spain, the ruins of Italica sit as an exemplar Roman colony with elaborate mosaic images lining the floors, remnants of stone-walled houses and ovens, an elevated sidewalk, and under-street drainage, cutting-edge technology of its time. Ultimately, Italica was abandoned; for all its technological advances and the best Rome had to offer, their water system pipes were made of lead. Acute lead poisoning, the equivalent of a few grains of sugar, can cause hallucinations, kidney damage, and severe brain damage (Wolf, 2014). Now as Flint, Michigan, following Washington, DC; Greenville and Durham, NC; Sebring, Ohio; and Jackson, Mississippi; among others (Wines & Schwartz, 2016) are facing their own water crisis, it is important to explore how our country’s relationship with lead, specifically atmospheric lead from automobile exhaust and lead-based paint, has affected generations of low-income, inner city youth, hindering their potential and contributing to waves of violence.

Etiology, symptomatology, and prevalence

Lead emissions from cars settle as lead-contaminated dust, with more dust falling in areas with higher traffic, such as inner cities. Once in the home, it combines with leadened dust from paint in older housing, and crawling, exploring children then ingest the lead in normal hand-to-mouth activity. The ingested lead is then absorbed into the bloodstream and causes an array of neurodevelopmental damage that affects learning and memory (Nevin, 2013).

Lead exposure mimics the role of calcium in the brain. Calcium does more than build strong bones, it is essential in brain development and plays key roles in memory formation and learning. Lead interrupts these pathways and can affect growth and communication between cells (Wolf, 2014). The interruptions in development are specific to the regions in the brain associated with executive functions - judgment, impulse control, and anticipation of consequences (Deitrich cited in Wolf, 2014). Cecil et. al. (2008) explain, as childhood blood-lead levels increase, gray matter volume decreases, specifically in those areas known for impulse control, emotional regulation, and decision making, the areas directly related to increased aggression. Areas of lead-associated gray matter loss were larger and more significant in men than women. The developmental outcome is a lowered IQ; for every 10 micrograms per deciliter (µg/dL) of lead in their blood, a child loses between 1 and 10 IQ points (Cecil et. al. cited in Wolf, 2014). A lower IQ can cause poor school performance, a diagnosis of a learning disorder, and low self-esteem; the child may get frustrated more easily and thus become more likely to act out and engage in delinquent behavior (Wolf, 2014).

The amount of lead that will cause severe cognitive impairment is miniscule. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) currently considers a level above 5 µg/dL (0.00005g per L) to be abnormal, a drastic decrease from the 1960s when the acceptable level was set at 60 µg/dL. At that time, “silent lead poisoning” was a novel idea. Rather than overt physical symptoms like hallucinations and kidney damage, Needleman noticed that children who had been exposed to lead had lower IQ scores, attention problems, and antisocial tendencies (cited in Wolf, 2014). The CDC reduced the acceptable amount to 40 µg/dL in 1970 and by 1990, it had reached 10 µg/dL, effectively lowering the average blood-lead level from 16 µg/dL in 1976 to 3 µg/dL in 1991. But the damage had been done. In a 1996 study of 12-year-old boys, Needleman saw that those rated worst by parents and teachers in terms of aggressive, antisocial behavior had the highest levels of lead in their bones, an indicator of significant lead exposure as children.

The biggest source of lead emissions in the postwar era was leaded gasoline. Atmospheric lead rose steadily from the early 1940s through the early 1970s, after which emissions plummeted. Violent crime rates followed the same pattern, rising dramatically in the 1960s through the 1980s and began dropping steadily in the early 1990s (Drum, 2013a). In 2000, Nevin released a study that found “long-term trends in population exposure to gasoline lead were found to be remarkably consistent with subsequent changes in violent crime and unwed pregnancy” (p. 1). He found that lead exposure is strongly associated with murder trends dating back to 1900. His findings indicated that children with higher levels of lead in their bones tended to display more aggressive and delinquent behavior. In addition, his research was consistent with data describing the relationship between IQ and social behavior. Reyes (2014) found that lead exposure has numerous effects on one’s life course and behavior, citing behavior problems as a child, pregnancy and aggression as a teen, and criminal behavior as a young adult. Additionally, as previously stated, the developmental damage as measured through MRIs is more severe in boys than girls (Cecil et. al., 2008). Kevin Drum, in a 2013 article for Mother Jones magazine, explained:

And with that we have our molecule: tetraethyl lead, the gasoline additive invented by General Motors in the 1920s to prevent knocking and pinging in high-performance engines. As auto sales boomed after World War II, and drivers in powerful new cars increasingly asked service station attendants to "fill 'er up with ethyl," they were unwittingly creating a crime wave two decades later.

Meaning and significance

The disparity in crime among Black and white youth can be attributed to disproportionate exposure to lead. In the 1960s, inner city hospitals admitted many comatose and convulsing Black children with severe lead poisoning. Nevin (2013) explains that Black children were disproportionately represented because they are more likely to be located in inner cities with high traffic and low-income housing with lead paint hazards. From 1976 - 1980, Black children under the age of three were six times more likely to have a blood-lead level above 30 µg/dL and eight times more likely to have a blood-lead level above 40 µg/dL.

From 1993-2004, the arrest rate for Black juvenile homicide fell by more than 80%, a trend not attributed to changes in the African American family structure, poverty, or rising incarceration (Nevin, 2013). Black juvenile crime rates fell further than their white counterparts because they had been artificially elevated by lead exposure at a much higher rate (Drum, 2013b). In an impassioned article, Nevin (2013) laments the racial disparity in crime and lead exposure stating,

African American boys disproportionately involved in the criminal justice system were also disproportionately exposed to lead contaminated dust as young children because black children were disproportionately concentrated in large cities and older housing. In 1976-1980, 15.3% of black children under the age of three had blood lead above 30 µg/dL … when just 2.5% of white children had blood lead that high (p. 1).

Individual, family, community traits or conditions that affect incidence

That more crime occurs in bigger cities seems obvious. There are more people in closer proximity, there are more shops that could be vandalized and people can move more anonymously. There are also more cars. Mielke & Zahran (2012) explored the relationship between lead, latent aggravated assault behavior, and the scale of a city from 1950-1985. Their model explains 90% of the variance in aggravated assault across cities in the U.S. Today, nearly 50 years after the Clean Air Act was passed, homicide rates are consistent in cities of all sizes (Cooper & Smith, 2013).

Compliance with the removal of leaded gasoline in accordance with the Clean Air Act was largely implemented on a timeline set by individual states. In 2007, Reyes hypothesized that in states where the consumption of leaded gasoline decreased slowly, crime would decrease slowly. Alternatively if the state quickly removed leaded gasoline, there would be a much quicker decline in crime rates. Reyes found that state-specific reductions in lead exposure in compliance with the Clean Air Act in the 1970s and early 1980s were responsible for significant declines in violent crime in the 1990s.

This trend is also measurable internationally. In a 2007 study, Nevin measured a strong association between preschool blood-lead levels and subsequent crime rates over several decades in the U.S., Britain, Canada, France, Australia, Finland, Italy, West Germany, and New Zealand. He found a “best fit lag” that neurobehavioral damage in the first year of life corresponded with the peak age of offending for index crime, burglary, and violent crime.

Finally, on an individual level, studies had indicated that lab animals who had been exposed to lead were indeed more prone to aggression (Wolf, 2014). Wright et. al. (2008) were the first group to conduct a longitudinal study on lead exposure in humans. They found that prenatal and postnatal blood lead concentrations were, in fact, associated with higher rates of arrests. This study is significant in that it is the first study to demonstrate a direct association between developmental lead exposure and adult criminal behavior.

2023 Update:

It would be irresponsible to not include the impact of racist city planning policy in the disparate amount of cars and exhaust moving through Black and Brown neighborhoods. Durham, Greensboro, Winston-Salem, and Charlotte, NC are featured in this project called Mapping Inequality which highlights how neighborhoods were color coded to indicate desirable places for rich white folks to live, and those undesirable areas near Black and Brown folks and poor white folks were colored red - a policy later called Red Lining.
Interestingly, if you overlay these maps with current maps of the area, many formerly vibrant and prosperous areas no longer exist. Highway 29 in my hometown of Greensboro, NC is the only highway I’ve ever seen with a chain-link fence dotting the top of the median. Before that highway existed, that area housed the Black professors and admin of A&T University, a premiere HBCU in NC. Winston-Salem has Highway 52 and Durham has Hwy 54 which both served the same purpose, to cut off access to education and economic centers and to use deliberate city planning and policy to dismantle the economic advancement and opportunity of Black folks in NC and across the South. The impact of the increase of environmental pollution cascaded across these communities and should be considered in conversations about reparations.
Search your city here: https://dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/#loc=5/39.1/-94.58

Impact on individuals, family, and community

Most children in the U.S. today have a blood-lead level of 1 or 2 µg/dL but there are nearly a half-million children under the age of five with a blood-lead level above the 5 µg/dL threshold (Wolf, 2014). These children are located in dilapidated inner city housing with lead paint or in neighborhoods with elevated lead levels in the soil. Alternatively, they are victims of negligent environmental and social policy as in the case of Flint, Michigan. We are facing a new generation of individuals who will have lower educational and economic outcomes, who may put additional stress on their families through aggressive tendencies and antisocial behavior, and perhaps result in a new crime wave when these children become adults. More research is needed on intervention measures and restorative justice practices for children who have been exposed to lead.

Specific recommendations for macro intervention

We must make environmental and social justice policy a priority on the local, state, and national level. Policy should reflect the belief that access to clean water is a right rather than a privilege, a value system that would manifest in strict preventative measures. Mielke & Zahran (2012) suggest that preventing childhood lead exposure could yield significant benefits in two decades, including reducing rates of violence.

Additionally, we should explore the source of pollution for the Flint river and immediately discontinue improper use of the water system. The Flint river not only flows near Flint, MI, the water and everything in it seeps into the ground and affects the wildlife and ecosystem of each area it flows through, from its tributaries to Lake Huron. Excessive pollution in a water system, the Earth’s circulatory system, should be considered an act of environmental injustice and companies should be forced to be held accountable and completely financially responsible for cleanup activities.

Ideally, we must transform our dependence on fossil fuels and restructure our entire transportation system in order to promote environmental and social justice. Investing in alternative, sustainable sources of energy must be a priority. In addition, we should emulate our industrialized European counterparts in developing rail systems that use less fuel and produce fewer emissions. Mohl (2002) and others have suggested that the construction of the national interstate highway system in the 1950s intentionally sliced through inner cities and deliberately used the expressway to destroy low-income, Black neighborhoods and communities that had been concentrated in those areas due to postwar tax and mortgage policies, public housing programs, and urban redevelopment schemes. The influx of heavy traffic in inner cities where Black and brown communities were concentrated resulted in the extreme lead exposures of the 40s - 70s and thus the concentrated crime rates, among other factors. If we replace the movement of cars through a city with public transportation including buses and light rail, we will effectively further reduce exposure to emissions and atmospheric pollution, not only for children but their families as well. High-speed rail between cities could use existing transportation thoroughfares and efficient in-city transportation, including numerous low cost park-and-ride lots, would reduce our need for cars, our need for fossil fuels, our incentive to “secure our energy interests” abroad, and ultimately make the world a safer, more sustainable place by reducing the need for raw materials and reducing emissions at home.

Specific recommendations for assessment and intervention at the micro level

Assessments for children and adults exposed to lead is conducted through blood and bone tests to measure the amount of lead accumulated in the body. More research is needed regarding interventions for individuals exposed to lead. Most reports indicate that the developmental damage is irreversible so prevention and support for families and children are key.

In-school-support should prioritize interrupting the school-to-prison pipeline. Recommended interventions include smaller class sizes, additional mentors and tutors in the classroom who could provide individual attention to children who learn through different styles and paces, increased recess time so that children can release frustration and anxiety through structured play, incorporate daily mindfulness practices, and a systemic transformation of classroom management from punitive to restorative practices.

School-based support for families should be a norm. Parents, guardians, and a child’s other important people should be included in school activities and conversations regarding its vision and mission. Schools should have a family advocate that can facilitate conversations between teachers, parents, and students. A whole-child approach to education would be especially beneficial to children who are victims of environmental injustice.

Conclusion

We must continue to monitor the levels of lead and other pollutants in our waterways so that we no longer need to monitor the amount of lead and pollutants in our children. Environmental and social policy reform are critical to ensuring a bright future for our children and communities. With the recommended policy changes, the air we breathe will be as clean as our conscience and we will be one step closer to repairing the legacy of environmental racism.

References

Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) - Publications & Products: Homicide Trends in the United States. (n.d.). Retrieved February 9, 2016, from http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbse&sid=31

CDC - MMWR - MMWR Publications - Supplements: Past Volume (2013). (n.d.). Retrieved February 6, 2016, from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/ind2013_su.html#HealthDisparities2013

Cecil, K. M., Brubaker, C. J., Adler, C. M., Dietrich, K. N., Altaye, M., Egelhoff, J. C., … Lanphear, B. P. (2008). Decreased Brain Volume in Adults with Childhood Lead Exposure. PLoS Medicine, 5(5), e112. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050112

Cooper, A., & Smith, E. (2013, December 30). Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) - Homicide in the U.S. Known to Law Enforcement, 2011. Retrieved February 9, 2016, from http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=pbdetail&iid=4863

Drum, K. (2013a). America’s Real Criminal Element: Lead | Mother Jones. Retrieved February 9, 2016, from http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2013/01/lead-crime-link-gasoline

Drum, K. (2013b, August 16). Race, lead, and juvenile crime. Retrieved February 9, 2016, from http://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2013/08/lead-crime-racism-black-white-juvenile

Drum, K. (2014, February 3). Lead and crime: It’s a brain thing. Retrieved February 9, 2016, from http://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2014/02/lead-and-crime-its-brain-thing

Kevin Drum Talks Lead and Crime on Melissa Harris-Perry. (2013, January 8). Retrieved February 9, 2016, from http://www.motherjones.com/mojo/2013/01/kevin-drum-lead-and-crime-melissa-harris-perry-msnbc

Mielke, H. W., & Zahran, S. (2012). The urban rise and fall of air lead (Pb) and the latent surge and retreat of societal violence. Environment International, 43, 48–55. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2012.03.005

Mohl, R. (2002). The interstates and the cities: Highways, housing, and the freeway revolt (Poverty and Race Research Action Council) (pp. 1–107). University of Alabama at Burmingham. Retrieved from http://www.prrac.org/pdf/mohl.pdf

Needleman, H. L. (1996). Bone Lead Levels and Delinquent Behavior. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 275(5), 363. http://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1996.03530290033034

Needleman, H. L., McFarland, C., Ness, R. B., Fienberg, S. E., & Tobin, M. J. (2002). Bone lead levels in adjudicated delinquents. Neurotoxicology and Teratology, 24(6), 711–717. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0892-0362(02)00269-6

Nevin, R. (2000). How Lead Exposure Relates to Temporal Changes in IQ, Violent Crime, and Unwed Pregnancy. Environmental Research, 83(1), 1–22. http://doi.org/10.1006/enrs.1999.4045

Nevin, R. (2007). Understanding international crime trends: The legacy of preschool lead exposure. Environmental Research, 104(3), 315–336. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2007.02.008

Nevin, R. (2013, July 30). A conversation about race and crime. Retrieved from http://www.ricknevin.com/uploads/A_Conversation_about_Race_and_Crime.pdf

Reyes, J. W. (2007). Environmental Policy as Social Policy? The Impact of Childhood Lead Exposure on Crime (Working Paper No. 13097). National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w13097

Reyes, J. W. (2014). Lead Exposure and Behavior: Effects on Antisocial and Risky Behavior among Children and Adolescents (Working Paper No. 20366). National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w20366

Stretesky, P. B., & Lynch, M. J. (2001). The Relationship Between Lead Exposure and Homicide. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 155(5), 579. http://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.155.5.579

Toscano, C. D., & Guilarte, T. R. (2005). Lead neurotoxicity: From exposure to molecular effects. Brain Research Reviews, 49(3), 529–554. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2005.02.004

Wines, M., & Schwartz, J. (2016, February 8). Unsafe Lead Levels in Tap Water Not Limited to Flint. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/09/us/regulatory-gaps-leave-unsafe-lead-levels-in-water-nationwide.html

Wolf, L. (2014). The Crimes of Lead. Chemical & Engineering News, 92(5), 27–29.

Wright, J. P., Dietrich, K. N., Ris, M. D., Hornung, R. W., Wessel, S. D., Lanphear, B. P., Rae, M. N. (2008). Association of Prenatal and Childhood Blood Lead Concentrations with Criminal Arrests in Early Adulthood. PLoS Med, 5(5), e101. http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050101